Welcome to the sixth and final presentation on HitAID syntax. This presentation concerns complex sentences and subordination. Topics discussed today include first direct questions, then subordination, complement clauses, adverbial clauses and relative clauses.

Let us start with questions. Yes-no questions do not show any morphosyntactic difference from assertions, so that they must have been indicated by intonation, as probably in one. Are you agreed, my brother? So as you can see, there is no overt indication that this is a question, and we understand it from the context.

Recall that sporadically, scribes would also indicate interrogative intonation with plenal spelling of the last vowel of final word in a question. WH questions are introduced by dedicated interrogative pronouns based on the stem ku or by conjunction.

For example, in tomb, the question where are you coming from is marked as such by the occurrence of quets, which is the ablative of the interrogative pronoun from where. Let us turn to subordination. In Hittite, subordination is less developed as compared to other more complex systems such as those found in classical Greek and Latin.

For example, there are no complement clauses at an early stage. Adverbial clauses are mostly pre-posed, with the exception of few quet and quetman clauses.

There are no finite purpose clauses, but only purpose infinitives. Relative clauses are mostly correlative, so not real subordinates. It must also be said that verbal forms of subordinate clauses show the same morphology as verbs of main clauses, indicating the overall low degree of morphosyntactic integration of subordinate clauses in Hittite.

Where we would find a complement clause in English with verbs of communication, in Hittite we find reported speech introduced by the quantitative particle wa or war. As in this example, they told me, we shall go kill him.

Note that we have a subject shift here, they told me, we shall go, as the subject of reported speech is always the speaker. Later, in New Hittite text, we find a limited number of complement clauses introduced by quet, which is the neutral

singular form of the relative pronoun, which develops both into a causal subordinator and into a complementizer, similarly to Latin quad. Quet-complement clauses are not attested with verbs of speech proper, but we

find them with some verbs of perception and communication, such as hatrai, right. Let us see an example of a quet clause depending on a verb of perception, ao si. But when the Assyrians saw our quet, that I had begun, and that is quet, to take the fortified cities in battle.

Adverbial clauses are of different types and include conditional clauses, encoded by taku in Old Hittite and by man in New Hittite. Man is also the main temporal subordinator in Old Hittite and is later replaced by mahan in New Hittite.

Another temporal subordinator is quitman. Quitman clauses are exceptional in that they can be either pre- or post-pose to the main clause. Finally, causal clauses are encoded by quit. Let us go through some examples of each type of adverbial subordinate clause.

Conditional clauses in Old Hittite are introduced by taku if, as in this example, if someone bites the nose of a free man. This is another example of a conditional clause, this time with man, which is the conditional conjunction typical of New Hittite.

If you were to give me one of your sons, he would become my husband. Note that the subordinating man is spelled with long a, and must be kept distinct from the modal particle man that we also find in this sentence,

which occurs here in the main clause and indicates potentiality. He would become my husband. In Old Hittite, the conjunction man functions only as temporal subordinator, with the meaning when, as in this example, when they take the living eagle, then they bring it forth.

The shift from temporal to conditional is quite frequent cross-linguistically, as you can see in German wen, which means both when and if. When man shifts from temporal when to conditional if in New Hittite,

temporal clauses start being introduced by machan, which originally meant as, and with this meaning is already attested in Old Hittite. The temporal use of machan in New Hittite is shown in this example. Machan when my father Mursili became god, that is, when he died, my brother Muatali sat on his throne.

Kuitman is another temporal conjunction, and it means either while or until, and is thus used to express duration in time. A peculiarity of Kuitman clauses is that they can be either proposed to the main clause, as in one,

Kuitman while a year's time goes by, he preserves it intact in his house. Or they can also be postponed to the main clause, as in two, he shall provide substitution in his house until Kuitman he recovers.

Finally, closer clauses are introduced by Kuiten, which can be either proposed or more rarely postponed. Here we see an example of a proposed causal Kuiten. Since no Hittite king had been in those countries before, I remained up there for some time.

Let us now turn to relative clauses which are especially interesting in Hittite since they most often show the correlative structure. What does this mean? This means that the head of the relative clause occurs within the relative clause itself,

and then is resumed by another constituent, often a resulting pronoun, in the main clause. So the difference between the two clauses is constituted by the occurrence of the relative pronoun in the relative clause. Let us have a closer look at one of these correlative clauses.

But which spares and scepters they hold, one guard takes this away from them. So in English we would translate it, one guard takes away from them the spares and scepters they hold. But the relative clause here is proposed and features the head noun spares and scepters inside it,

as well as the agreeing relative pronoun which. These are referred to in the main clause by the pronoun at.

Literally this complex sentence, as I said in the translation, means which spares and scepters this one guard takes away. This is the most frequent type of relative clause in Hittite. Here we see another example of a relative clause of this type. If Marantasas brings here the tablet he has, do not take it away from him.

Here we have two subordinate clauses. First there is a conditional clause depending on the main clause, if he brings, not man would I, and then a relative clause modifying the conditional clause which tablet Marantas has.

The head of the relative clause is tupu inside the relative clause and is co-referred by at both in the conditional and in the main clause. We could also have three relative clauses.

These are relative clauses that feature the relative pronoun only and not the head noun. Moreover, in some clauses the resumptive element in the main clause can also be absent. These two features, that is absence of both the lexical head and the resumptive element, are exemplified in this relative clause from the text of the laws.

The one who is impure gives three shekels of silver. Quis paprece the one who is impure. Few postposed relative clauses can also be semantically restrictive, that is, they serve to identify a referent in discourse.

Unlike correlatives, these are two subordinate relative clauses, as the head is in the main clause. Here is one example. They did not give me that wine that you, the king, saw. That wine that you saw. Finally, pre-postposed relative clauses can also be a positive,

that is, they convey additional information about a referent that has already been identified in discourse. This is an example. So, Kumaarbi takes wisdom into his mind, he who raises the day as an evil being.

Here the relative clause, who raises the day as an evil being is clearly a positive because it refers to a personal name in the main clause, Kumaarbis, which has unique reference and does not allow a restrictive reading.

In this presentation we have discussed complex clauses in Hittite. This was the last lesson of our Hittite course and it has been my pleasure to introduce you to this fascinating language. I hope that you found this brief overview of the Hittite grammar interesting and stimulating

and that you will be willing to learn more in depth other aspects of Hittite and other Anatolian languages. Goodbye and take care.