Hello and welcome to the first lesson of our module about tokarian syntax. In this video you will get an overview of syntactic features of tokarian. This part of the course requires some basic knowledge about the morphological categories of tokarian which are found in another video. So first we will have a look at the word classes or the parts

of speech of tokarian and first we begin with the open classes. We have nouns and verbs and they are heavily synthetic which means that there is a rich amount of forms. We have adjectives that are inflected but there is also a large group that is uninflected which blurs the boundaries between adverbs and adjectives. The adverbs

have no specific marking. If we move over to the closed classes we have demonstrative pronouns and we have personal pronouns and the specific thing about personal pronouns is that they also have a set of clitic forms that are important in grammar or alignment and postpositions

are most frequent but also prepositions do occur and we have verbal particles and auxiliaries but they are not very frequent because tokarian is a heavily synthetic language.

So tokarian has a number of specific features of the typology which are different from most other ancient independent languages. In other aspects tokarian is similar to other ancient languages so it's basically left branching or head final. There is a distinction between human

and non-human in the agent-patient marking. The nominal paradigm is mixed synthetic agglutinative, there is group inflection and lack of concordance of head and modifier in noun phrases and they also have case inflected at positions and adverbials. So first we will begin by

looking at nominal structure and we'll start with linearization and in principle the word or constituent order of tokarian is free and this includes also the order of words in phrases and in particular in metric texts there is a large amount of variation. However it is possible

to establish a fixed or canonical or normal word order and if we begin with phrases we have an order which is quantifier adjective and noun and we see that here in this example

So for agreement in noun phrases adjectives do agree but only in primary cases and only by inflected adjectives and remember I

said before that there is a large group of adjectives that are not inflected the so-called uninflected adjectives. So let's see look at examples here we have the the wooden mechanical girl this is a phrase of course all of this and we have the oblique singular feminine and

we have the oblique singular feminine here and we have this wooden girl which is another phrase and you see here it's an inflected adjective. Moving over to gender

there is gender distinction in nouns as well as in adjectives and it's based the basic system has masculine and feminine two genders. In the demonstrative pronouns we have a three gender distinction which is masculine feminine and neutral. Gender is detectable basically by

adjective agreement in case of inflected adjectives so again a large group of adjectives are uninflected. The gender assignment is semantic for instance by sexes or morphological for instance by the stem finals and there is a specific group called the genus alternans

and it agrees with the masculine in singular and with the feminine in plural and this is a group that corresponds to the historical or indepian futures.

Now let's move over to a number and we have some very interesting and specific and peculiar things about the carrion here. So first we have a dual the dual is used basically for occasional pairs. Why? Because we have also another number the so-called parallel and is used

for natural pairs such as feet, ears, knees and also stable pairs such as a pair of oxen

or like here the divine couple. Then we have a very specific and special number of tocarion and that's the plurative it's restricted to tocarion b and it's used

to individualize parts of the collective so we have a very nice example here it's about monks that are supposed to move out into many different houses and you see here we have house in the oblique plural and then here we have the plurative and then we have

the locative so here it's the the plural and here is the plurative it's individualizing the plural and then we have the locative which means that it's into each and every one. So special features of the case there is a difference between primary and secondary

cases which is very important and in the morphology lesson you have seen what the case system looks like. So the difference between primary and secondary cases is important as I said it's visible in agreement as well as in the functions and basically core functions

are expressed by primary cases whereas non-core functions are expressed by secondary cases and an interesting thing is also that secondary affixes are more independent and this

is for instance visible in the tocarion b stress so we have here the word jäkke which means horse and then in the genitive which is a primary case remember it's jäkwäntse whereas in singular you see here it's jäkwässe so the stress is on the root indicating that the suffix

here or case affix is more free than bound. In the ablative we have both possibilities so we have for instance leklemem where it is like a primary case like the genitive or we have

the more frequent form leklemem where the case affix is more free. Another special feature of tocarion is group inflection and it means the secondary cases normally appear only once at

the end of known phrases and we have a very nice example here from the material summit in where we have chariots oblique plural horses oblique plural elephants oblique plural and see here the instrumental it occurs only once at the end of the phrase so it's for all this phrase

here so another thing which is also very peculiar is that secondary cases can be split

which means that the genitive or the possessive of a noun phrase is inserted between the oblique noun and the affix now this use is restricted first is found only in tocarion b and it's also a bit formalized to time expressions or time notions but here we have an example so

on the fifth day of the eighth month you see here is the month and it's in genitive singular but here is the locative so it says oxantepish nie and then menatze is in between the affix

and the noun so let's very quickly look at case functions first we have the nominative and the nominative the main function of the nominative is like in other indepen languages it marks the subject or the agent the oblique marks the direct object but the oblique also has

some non-core functions and it means that it is used to express spatial and temporal notions such as the direction the extension and the distribution and now these non-core

functions of the oblique they are actually restricted which means that they occur with specific verbs we have the genitive the genitive is very important because it covers both the genitive as well as the dative so first it's we have the dative functions here

and it is the function of indirect object like normal data also the indirect subject like in non-canonical case marking constructions and then it's used for agent in passive constructions then we have the normal genitive functions which is the positive genitive the subjective

genitive and objective genitive and it's also used with verb persk to fear which is a dative like function now if we move over to the secondary cases we have first the perlative

it has it can be used as agent in passive constructions that we'll see later on too and it has many interesting non-core functions it marks perlative which is like movement over something on top of something and so forth and then it it marks allative which means that you

move up to something adhesive you're for instance sitting on a horse or sitting on top of something on a throne throne then it's the relative it marks extension in time which means that it is a time period without limits at the beginning at the end and instrumental and also

causal or the cause of something as well as modal the the modal function the locative marks locative and innersive so it's real local functions it's when you're located located at a specific spot then you use the locative so there is an interesting

difference here between the palliative and the locative and it also marks innersive like if you're inside of a house or inside of a cave or anything like that if you move into a house or into a cave we also use the locative it's the illative function and it marks time but you see

the difference here it's extension and limitation so if you go at a specific time so it's more perfective the locative use at a specific time or a time frame which is delimited like within one day then you use the locative otherwise if there is no real boundary between

the be at the beginning and the end you use the palliative the allative is a bit more restricted in its use it's basically used for for local functions so it marks

direction but it's movement towards something in contrast to the locative and the palliative the ablative marks departure in its local use and it also marks departure in time then we have the commutative and the commutative is used when you go together with someone so it's

it's quite restricted and the instrumental is found only in tocarion a and it marks instrumental and then we have the causal and it's found only in tocarion b and it marks the cause of something so let's move over to referentiality and tocarion is similar to most of the

indepian languages in that it does not have definite markers however indefinitely this can be marked and it's used by the it's done by the indefinite pronoun so we'll now finally look at

the text of the mechanical doll that we have looked at a little before and we will consider specifically the usages of the case system here so let's start at the beginning here so in the first rate just at another time you see here it has the locative and it

that at a specific occasion this other painter he went as a guest

to the house of a mechanic and you see here they used the palliative which is interesting it means that he is on his way he goes to the house but he didn't enter the house specifically now and then it says thereupon this mechanic in all ways he did

he did in all ways he did in all manners he did honor and you see here we have the palliative so it's more like like an instrumental or causal use and then we have the adverbial the time

notion for the night and it's it's a it's actually an oblique case so separately here in the house which is interesting because here you see he made a bed in the house now

the painter has entered the house and the mechanic makes a bed for him in the house so they use the locative and then also from his head he makes it down it's a causative use so he put a mechanical doll from his head

you see here the ablative that's interesting because it means that it's he did put a mechanical doll at the head of the bed but it's an ablative because it means

away from the bed of the painter and it was a wooden mechanical girl and he did it with sesame oil and with a commutative and then we see here

on the slide that we have the verb which is here and it says she did service which is the mechanical doll and to him with reverence and like with reverence

and then here you see the palliative in instrumental use with beauty and ceasing and it's all as if ceasing by the hand so when you see someone by the hand you use the locative and again we have an instrumental use of the palliative

in in a manner like that so thank you for watching this clip about the carrion syntax in our next lesson we will continue with alignment tense and aspect